Insulin-like growth factor (IGF-I) is a 7.5-kD polypeptide that circulates in plasma in high concentrations and is detectable in most tissues. IGF-I stimulates cell differentiation and cell proliferation, and is required by most mammalian cell types for sustained proliferation. These cell types include, among others, human diploid fibroblasts, epithelial cells, smooth muscle cells, T lymphocytes, neural cells, myeloid cells, chondrocytes, osteoblasts and bone marrow stem cells. For a review of the wide variety of cell types for which IGF-I/IGF-I receptor interaction mediates cell proliferation, see Goldring et al., Eukar. Gene Express., 1:31-326 (1991).
The first step in the transduction pathway leading to IGF-I-stimulated cellular proliferation or differentiation is binding of IGF-I or IGF-II (or insulin at supraphysiological concentrations) to the IGF-I receptor. The IGF-I receptor is composed of two types of subunits: an alpha subunit (a 130-135 kD protein that is entirely extracellular and functions in ligand binding) and a beta subunit (a 95-kD transmembrane protein, with transmembrane and cytoplasmic domains). The IGF-IR belongs to the family of tyrosine kinase growth factor receptors (Ullrich et al., Cell 61: 203-212, 1990), and is structurally similar to the insulin receptor (Ullrich et al., EMBO J. 5: 2503-2512, 1986). The IGF-IR is initially synthesized as a single chain proreceptor polypeptide which is processed by glycosylation, proteolytic cleavage, and covalent bonding to assemble into a mature 460-kD heterotetramer comprising two alpha-subunits and two beta-subunits. The beta subunit(s) possesses ligand-activated tyrosine kinase activity. This activity is implicated in the signaling pathways mediating ligand action which involve autophosphorylation of the beta-subunit and phosphorylation of IGF-IR substrates.
In vivo, serum levels of IGF-I are dependent upon the presence of pituitary growth hormone (GH). Although the liver is a major site of GH-dependent IGF-I synthesis, recent work indicates that the majority of normal tissues also produce IGF-I. A variety of neoplastic tissues may also produce IGF-I. Thus IGF-I may act as a regulator of normal and abnormal cellular proliferation via autocrine or paracrine, as well as endocrine mechanisms. IGF-I and IGF-II bind to IGF binding proteins (IGFBPs) in vivo. The availability of free IGF for interaction with the IGF-1R is modulated by the IGFBPs. For a review of IGFBPs and IGF-I, see Grimberg et al., J. Cell. Physiol. 183: 1-9, 2000.
There is considerable evidence for a role for IGF-I and/or IGF-IR in the maintenance of tumor cells in vitro and in vivo. IGF-IR levels are elevated in tumors of lung (Kaiser et al., J. Cancer Res. Clin Oncol. 119: 665-668, 1993; Moody et al., Life Sciences 52: 1161-1173, 1993; Macauley et al., Cancer Res., 50: 2511-2517, 1990), breast (Pollak et al., Cancer Lett. 38: 223-230, 1987; Foekens et al., Cancer Res. 49: 7002-7009, 1989; Cullen et al., Cancer Res. 49: 7002-7009, 1990; Arteaga et al., J. Clin. Invest. 84: 1418-1423, 1989), prostate and colon (Remaole-Bennet et al., J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 75: 609-616, 1992; Guo et al., Gastroenterol. 102: 1101-1108, 1992). Deregulated expression of IGF-I in prostate epithelium leads to neoplasia in transgenic mice (DiGiovanni et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97: 3455-60, 2000). In addition, IGF-I appears to be an autocrine stimulator of human gliomas (Sandberg-Nordqvist et al., Cancer Res. 53: 2475-2478, 1993), while IGF-I stimulated the growth of fibrosarcomas that overexpressed IGF-IR (Butler et al., Cancer Res. 58: 3021-27, 1998). Further, individuals with “high normal” levels of IGF-I have an increased risk of common cancers compared to individuals with IGF-I levels in the “low normal” range (Rosen et al., Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 10: 136-41, 1999). Many of these tumor cell types respond to IGF-I with a proliferative signal in culture (Nakanishi et al., J. Clin. Invest. 82: 354-359, 1988; Freed et al., J. Mol. Endocrinol. 3: 509-514, 1989), and autocrine or paracrine loops for proliferation in vivo have been postulated (LeRoith et al., Endocrine Revs. 16: 143-163, 1995; Yee et al., Mol. Endocrinol. 3: 509-514, 1989). For a review of the role IGF-I/IGF-I receptor interaction plays in the growth of a variety of human tumors, see Macaulay, Br. J. Cancer, 65: 311-320, 1992.
Increased IGF-I levels are also correlated with several noncancerous pathological states, including acromegaly and gigantism (Barkan, Cleveland Clin. J. Med. 65: 343, 347-349, 1998), while abnormal IGF-I/IGF-I receptor function has been implicated in psoriasis (Wraight et al., Nat. Biotech. 18: 521-526, 2000), atherosclerosis and smooth muscle restenosis of blood vessels following angioplasty (Bayes-Genis et al., Circ. Res. 86: 125-130, 2000). Increased IGF-I levels also can be a problem in diabetes or in complications thereof, such as microvascular proliferation (Smith et al., Nat. Med. 5: 1390-1395, 1999). Decreased IGF-I levels, which occur, inter alia, in cases when GH serum levels are decreased or when there is an insensitivity or resistance to GH, is associated with such disorders as small stature (Laron, Paediatr. Drugs 1: 155-159, 1999), neuropathy, decrease in muscle mass and osteoporosis (Rosen et al., Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 10: 136-141, 1999).
Using antisense expression vectors or antisense oligonucleotides to the IGF-IR RNA, it has been shown that interference with IGF-IR leads to inhibition of IGF-I-mediated or IGF-II-mediated cell growth (see, e.g., Wraight et al., Nat. Biotech. 18: 521-526, 2000). The antisense strategy was successful in inhibiting cellular proliferation in several normal cell types and in human tumor cell lines. Growth can also be inhibited using peptide analogues of IGF-I (Pietrzkowski et al., Cell Growth & Diff. 3: 199-205, 1992; and Pietrzkowski et al., Mol. Cell. Biol., 12: 3883-3889, 1992), or a vector expressing an antisense RNA to the IGF-I RNA (Trojan et al., Science 259: 94-97, 1992). In addition, antibodies to IGF-IR (Arteaga et al., Breast Canc. Res. Treatm., 22: 101-106, 1992; and Kalebic et al., Cancer Res. 54: 5531-5534, 1994), and dominant negative mutants of IGF-IR (Prager et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 91: 2181-2185, 1994; Li et al., J. Biol. Chem., 269: 32558-32564, 1994 and Jiang et al., Oncogene 18: 6071-77, 1999), can reverse the transformed phenotype, inhibit tumorigenesis, and induce loss of the metastatic phenotype.
IGF-I is also important in the regulation of apoptosis. Apoptosis, which is programmed cell death, is involved in a wide variety of developmental processes, including immune and nervous system maturation. In addition to its role in development, apoptosis also has been implicated as an important cellular safeguard against tumorigenesis (Williams, Cell 65: 1097-1098, 1991; Lane, Nature 362: 786-787, 1993). Suppression of the apoptotic program, by a variety of genetic lesions, may contribute to the development and progression of malignancies.
IGF-I protects from apoptosis induced by cytokine withdrawal in IL-3-dependent hemopoietic cells (Rodriguez-Tarduchy, G. et al., J. Immunol. 149: 535-540, 1992), and from serum withdrawal in Rat-1/mycER cells (Harrington, E., et al., EMBO J. 13: 3286-3295, 1994). The anti-apoptotic function of IGF-I is important in the post-commitment stage of the cell cycle and also in cells blocked in cell cycle progression by etoposide or thymidine. The demonstration that c-myc driven fibroblasts are dependent on IGF-I for their survival suggests that there is an important role for the IGF-IR in the maintenance of tumor cells by specifically inhibiting apoptosis, a role distinct from the proliferative effects of IGF-I or IGF-IR. This would be similar to a role thought to be played by other anti-apoptotic genes such as bcl-2 in promoting tumor survival (McDonnell et al., Cell 57: 79-88, 1989; Hockenberry et al., Nature 348: 334-336, 1990).
The protective effects of IGF-I on apoptosis are dependent upon having IGF-IR present on cells to interact with IGF-I (Resnicoff et al., Cancer Res. 55: 3739-3741, 1995). Support for an anti-apoptotic function of IGF-IR in the maintenance of tumor cells was also provided by a study using antisense oligonucleotides to the IGF-IR that identified a quantitative relationship between IGF-IR levels, the extent of apoptosis and the tumorigenic potential of a rat syngeneic tumor (Rescinoff et al., Cancer Res. 55: 3739-3741, 1995). An overexpressed IGF-IR has been found to protect tumor cells in vitro from etoposide-induced apoptosis (Sell et al., Cancer Res. 55: 303-306, 1995) and, even more dramatically, that a decrease in IGF-1R levels below wild type levels caused massive apoptosis of tumor cells in vivo (Resnicoff et al., Cancer Res. 55: 2463-2469, 1995).
Potential strategies for inducing apoptosis or for inhibiting cell proliferation associated with increased IGF-I, increased IGF-II and/or increased IGF-IR receptor levels include suppressing IGF-I levels or IGF-II levels or preventing the binding of IGF-I to the IGF-IR. For example, the long acting somatostatin analogue octreotide has been employed to reduce IGF synthesis and/or secretion. Soluble IGF-IR has been used to induce apoptosis in tumor cells in vivo and inhibit tumorigenesis in an experimental animal system (D'Ambrosio et al., Cancer Res. 56: 4013-20, 1996). In addition, IGF-IR anti sense oligonucleotides, peptide analogues of IGF-I, and antibodies to IGF-IR have been used to decrease IGF-I or IGF-IR expression (see supra). However, none of these compounds has been suitable for long-term administration to human patients. In addition, although IGF-I has been administered to patients for treatment of short stature, osteoporosis, decreased muscle mass, neuropathy or diabetes, the binding of IGF-I to IGFBPs has often made treatment with IGF-I difficult or ineffective.
Accordingly, in view of the roles that IGF-I and IGF-IR have in such disorders as cancer and other proliferative disorders when IGF-I and/or IGF-IR are overexpressed, and the roles that too little IGF-I and IGF-IR have in disorders such as short stature and frailty when either IGF-I and/or IGF-IR are underexpressed, it would be desirable to generate antibodies to IGF-IR that could be used to either inhibit or stimulate IGF-IR. Although anti-IGF-IR antibodies have been reported to have been found in certain patients with autoimmune diseases, none of these antibodies has been purified and none has been shown to be suitable for inhibiting IGF-I activity for diagnostic or clinical procedures. See, e.g., Thompson et al., Pediat. Res. 32: 455-459, 1988; Tappy et al., Diabetes 37: 1708-1714, 1988; Weightman et al., Autoimmunity 16:251-257, 1993; Drexhage et al., Nether. J. of Med. 45:285-293, 1994. Thus, it would be desirable to obtain high-affinity human anti-IGF-IR antibodies that could be used to treat diseases in humans.